The Jon Haynie Blog: 2021

Check the Mirror Recently?

DISCLAIMER: The following post was originally completed as part of my coursework for EDUC 520-Student Learning and Motivation, one of my grad classes. If you are not interested in education, this is going to be wicked boring. Please feel free to check out some of my other posts!

Looking back into our pasts, we can all recall two teachers. The first is the teacher who had the same dusty textbooks, posters, lesson plans, and methods from decades of teaching, never changing anything but complaining that today’s students were just harder to teach because they were more rebellious than ever. The second was the teacher that was passionate, constantly deviating from the book, changing the plans, and trying new activities. One of them is the reason that most teachers fell in love with learning and became teachers themselves. Can you guess which?

Highly effective teachers become so because they are reflective teachers. Reflective teachers are called that because they are consistently observing and analyzing their own actions and students’ reactions throughout every lesson (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 14). As opposed to teachers who keep their noses to the grindstone of giving information, reflective teachers take the time to look at themselves and their classrooms from others’ perspectives. They also look ahead into the future and speculate on the possible outcomes of their actions.

Reflective teaching starts before the lessons are even planned (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 14). Reflective teachers look at the essential information and skills from each unit of study and plan the entire unit around those goals. They plan teaching methods and activities that best serve those goals, whether those are tried and true methods or new experimental ones (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 14). It does not matter because the goal is not to be a traditional or avant-garde teacher, it is to do what is best for student learning.

Reflective teaching continues during lessons (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 15). Reflective teachers are constantly aware of their own actions, but are also aware of their students’ states of mind. They are not bound to their lesson plans, no matter how meticulously they were completed, but are willing to be flexible, drop their plans, and try something new at the drop of a hat if it better serves their students (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 15).

Lastly, reflective teaching continues even after lessons are done and the students are gone (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 15). Reflective teachers take time to review what happened and ponder whether the lesson was successful or not, and what changes may be made in the future to further enhance the effectiveness of their teaching (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 15).

Becoming a reflective teacher necessitates a mastery of their subject area, knowledge of a vast array of teaching and learning strategies, familiarity with one’s students, the ability to see the classroom through the eyes of their students, and a willingness to change when necessary (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 15). It includes willingness to be responsible for your classroom and take the time to reflect each day on what went well and what went poorly, and the ability to find new ways to improve each and every day (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 15).

Think back to that second teacher again, the one who inspires others to be teachers as well. They probably inspire others to teach because they were a reflective teacher. How closely do you resemble that teacher today? When was the last time you took a minute to reflect? Have you checked the mirror recently?

Reference:

Biehler, R., McCown, R., & Snowman, J. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Goal Orientation

Research

Many teachers incorrectly believe that most of their students do not have goals. In reality, every student has goals. Some students want to get an A to impress their parents or peers, whereas some want to spend the least amount of time possible working on school so they can play video games all evening. Some students want nothing more than to avoid looking foolish and get a diploma as quickly as possible. Occasionally, a teacher is blessed with that rare student who truly prizes the knowledge in that class and desires to master the information and skills taught therein. The difference in each of these students is their goal orientation.

The first and most preferable type of goal orientation students can exhibit is that of task-mastery goals. Task-mastery occurs when students do whatever is needed in order to learn the task or information with the primary goal of actually mastering the task (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 410). Students with task-mastery goals have high self-efficacy, will employ a variety of learning strategies in order to master the task or information, and take mistakes in stride as part of the learning process (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 410).

Another type of goal orientation that initially appears similar to task-mastery, at least on the surface, is the performance-approach mentality of setting goals. Performance-approach occurs when students do whatever is needed in order to outperform all the other students and prove their own academic superiority (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 410). Students with performance-approach goals usually have high self-efficacy but are not intrinsically motivated to learn the task or material, but rather seek to perform at the highest level, so they tend to do well on assessments but are less likely to remember things or develop interest in the material in the long run (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 410).

A third type of goal orientation that is the other side of the coin from performance-approach goal setting is the mentality of performance-avoidance. Performance-avoidance occurs when students do whatever is necessary to minimize the risk of failing a learning target in order to avoid appearing less intelligent than the other students (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 410). Students who choose performance-avoidance goals tend to have low self-efficacy and tend to avoid challenges altogether or, when unable to avoid challenges, engage in self-handicapping behaviors so that failure can be excused rather than attributed to low intelligence (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 410-411).

Another type of goal orientation that is not desirable in a student is a work-avoidance goal. Work-avoidance goals are based on trying to do the least amount of work possible for the maximum amount of credit possible (Svinicki, 2005, 2). Students who choose a work-avoidance goal tend to study course requirements rather than course materials in order to achieve the minimum amount of credit necessary to pass. They may not actually be lazy, but may be dealing with outside pressures and simply trying to economize their time and effort (Svinicki, 2005, 4).

In regards to their beliefs about cognitive ability, learners fall into three categories: incremental, entity, and mixed. An incremental theorist believes that intelligence can be improved over time by improving their skills and learning new ones (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 414). Incremental theorists are the learners who have task-mastery goal orientation because they see the task as the goal and obstacles and mistakes as learning opportunities (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 414). An incremental theorist attributes failure to poor effort or learning strategies, and can therefore be motivated to try again (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 414).

The second type of learner, the entity theorist, does not view intelligence as a part of themselves that can be improved, but as an entity with fixed characteristics (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 414). They are much more likely to view learning tasks with a performance-based goal orientation, and attack it with confidence if they believe themselves to be “smart enough” to complete the task or start implementing self-handicapping strategies if they do not believe themselves to be “smart enough” to do so (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 415). An entity theorist blames failure on lack of intelligence, and therefore cannot be motivated to try again because he believes himself to simply be bad at certain subject areas (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 415).

The third type of learner is the mixed theorist. Mixed theorists hold to the incremental theory for some subject areas, and entity theory for other subject areas (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 414). This type of learner needs to learn to apply the same motivation to all subject areas as he does to the subject areas that hold his interest.

No student exists in a bubble, therefore all of these types of goal orientation have a social aspect. Performance-approach goal orientation is often mistakenly promoted by well-meaning parents and teachers by praising high test grades and GPA’s, whereas performance-avoidance goals are often encouraged by peers calling each other dumb and glorifying making excuses. Work-avoidance goals are extremely common among student populations brought up in an educational system where the emphasis is passing classes and moving ahead rather than actual learning. The task-mastery goal orientation is the hardest to promote, and requires teachers to take specific, intentional steps to attain it.

Teachers cannot force students to adopt task-mastery goals, but they certainly can promote it. Some of the most effective ways to encourage task-mastery thinking are to choose learning targets that are worthwhile and challenging yet attainable, creating a learning community where mistakes are acceptable and progress is praised over a numerical representation of achievement, allowing students some options as they set their learning goals, and modeling a task-mastery mindset as the teacher (Svinicki, 2005, 4). Worthwhile targets encourage interest and motivation for work-avoidant students, and challenging yet attainable targets promote a growth mindset in students with lower self-efficacy. A learning community breaks down the competitive environment in which performance-based goals thrive. Giving students choices promotes interest and creative thinking. Most importantly, modeling a task-mastery mindset not only keeps teachers learning throughout their lives, but makes them the leaders in their community of learners.

All teachers worth their salt want students with task-mastery goal orientation. However, few recognize it when they see it. But every teacher can and should encourage their students to adopt that philosophy, and the best way to do so is by modeling it themselves.

Personal Application

Although I have many students with the various types of goal orientation, I was surprised to find how many of my students fit the description of work-avoidance goal orientation to the very last detail as described by Svinicki. I believe this to be due to many factors. It is partially due to the large amount of students who come into my school from the Milwaukee Public School system, where the prevailing mindset is to get the credit and graduate. It is also due to the large number of students who have parents who did not graduate from college or even high school, and therefore place little value in their own education. There are also many students who have tremendous responsibilities outside of school, which is definitely a factor in their spending the minimum amount of effort possible on school. Lastly, I believe many students adopt this type of goal orientation because they see their classmates doing it and, for the most part, getting away with it.

I believe that two of the strategies given by Svinicki that would be particularly helpful in combating this work-avoidance mindset in my students and encouraging task-mastery goal orientation instead. The first is to set worthwhile learning targets. Many of these students view school as little more than a checklist of things they have to do before they can enter the adult world. Choosing activities that actually have an impact on their futures in that adult world can help them see the value in not only that activity, but also other activities and the information in the class as well. One example might be allowing students to choose alternative presentation methods, such as posters or speeches, rather than simply writing an essay every time a writing assignment rolls around. This would have an especially big impact on students aspiring to get into design-based careers or vocations with frequent public speaking.

The second and most important strategy to break down the work-avoidance mindset and foster the task-mastery mindset is that of modeling it myself. Most of the students that fall into this category are there because of the lack of positive role models. Seeing someone succeed at new tasks, and at learning new tasks, may be exactly the impetus many of them need to challenge their own thinking and consider that there may be more to life than just muddling through with minimum effort and hoping things eventually get better. One example I frequently use in my classroom is woodworking. This is one of the hobbies that I picked up as an adult and am continually progressing in by learning new techniques, improving skills I already have, learning from my mistakes, and accepting new challenges. Speaking on this frequently not only gives me constant examples to use while teaching English, but also displays my philosophy of being a self-motivated lifelong learner to my students.

That being said, I still have students that display the other types of goal orientation as well and need to employ every strategy possible to encourage task-mastery mindsets in my students. They are all important. I must remind myself daily that in order to see this type of dramatic change in my students, I must first be willing to change myself.

References

Biehler, R., McCown, R., & Snowman, J. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Svinicki, M. (2005). Student goal orientation, motivation, and learning. The IDEA Center. Manhattan, Kansas: The IDEA Center. https://www.depauw.edu/files/resources/student-goal-orientation.pdf

Stop Kicking and Start Running!

Every teacher has seen it happen: they prepared a great lesson, only to have several students put their heads down in boredom and be snoring by the end of class. Or perhaps a student seems enthusiastic about starting a new project, but due date comes around and the teacher finds that the student never got past the planning phase. Although what most teachers think the students need is a kick in the pants, what these students are dealing with is lack of sufficient motivation.

Motivation is the will to choose, pursue, and complete a task (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 406). Although teachers often think their students are not motivated simply because they are not displaying the same fervent passion for the subject that they have, this is not the case. Technically, any student who completes a task has some level of motivation (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 406). So how can teachers influence their students to exhibit higher levels of motivation and achieve the maximum potential of what the teacher desires?

The answer lies in that word: influence. What many teachers have painfully come to realize is that they cannot force a child to be intrinsically motivated; that is to say, motivated from within (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 408). Therefore, they lean entirely on extrinsic motivation through means such as rewards, prizes, and consequences (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 408). While this may seem to have a good short-term effect, and certainly has a place in the classroom, studies have shown that this type of extrinsic motivation is often taken to excess by a teacher who sees some initial success with it, and actually ends up decreasing the student’s intrinsic motivation (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 408). Not only do teachers get exhausted trying to keep up with their motivational techniques, the students lose what little motivation they may have had!

So if teachers cannot motivate students intrinsically, and should not motivate them extrinsically, what is left? They must return to influence. They can motivate them extrinsically, but they must fundamentally change their methods if they want the extrinsic motivation to transfer into the student and become intrinsic motivation. Promote and model growth mindset (Wilcox, 2018). Get your students out of the rut of thinking your subject is impossibly difficult and show them little ways they can succeed. Develop meaningful, respectful relationships in your classroom (Wilcox, 2018). Students simply will not learn from someone they do not identify with or even like. Make your classroom a learning community (Wilcox, 2018). Students must know that taking risks and making mistakes are okay, and are even a vital part of the learning process. Set high expectations and clear goals (Wilcox, 2018). Students want to achieve great things, but will never be motivated if they are not sure how because the instructions are unclear. And lastly, be an inspirational model (Wilcox, 2018). Students want to pay attention to and follow in the steps of someone they consider positive and successful, so be positive and successful!

So what does this influential motivation look like? Stop rewarding every single instance of academic excellence, and instead provide specific, constructive feedback aimed at every student’s progress. Stop being a reward and consequence dispenser, and instead invest some time into getting to know your students. Stop directing your students’ focus to percentages and letter grades, and instead encourage effort and progress. Stop allowing your students to settle for “good enough,” and instead provide clear instruction on how to actually succeed (and ample time and additional opportunities to do so). Stop sitting in the ivory tower behind your teacher desk, and instead join the classroom community as the lead learner.

A kick in the pants rarely motivated anyone to start running down the road to success. Seeing someone shout “You’ll never believe what I just found!” and starting to run down the same road will probably get at least a few followers. Trying to jolt them into being motivated with trite extrinsic rewards is like kicking them in the pants. Passionate, precise modeling is like being the leader that runs down the path. Stop kicking and start running!

References:

Biehler, R., McCown, R., & Snowman, J. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Wilcox, L. (2018, June 4). Top 5 strategies for motivating students. National board for professional teaching standards. https://www.nbpts.org/blog/top-5-strategies-for-motivating-students/

How to Teach Them to Teach Themselves

Self-regulated learning could be referred to as lifelong learning, as it pertains to people who seem to learn new information and acquire skills without being taught, sometimes seemingly without effort! Although it can most easily be seen in a person who is already out of school, self-regulatory skills can be developed and honed while still in the school setting. There are three phases in self-regulated learning: forethought, performance, and self-reflection (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 281).

Forethought includes setting goals, planning strategies, and self-motivation (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 282). Although most goals are set and strategies laid out for students by the teachers in school, there are many opportunities for gradual release of this control, especially in high school. A few examples might be allowing students to select their own topics and outline formats for a comparison-contrast essay, or laying out their own experiments for a science fair project. A great way to have students do this effectively is to model it for them and have them do similar tasks under close guidance and work in groups before having them do it themselves. And while most students are motivated by grades or other extrinsic motivation, some of the most powerful moments in any student/teacher relationship involve finding a topic that truly interests the student, regardless of grades or other external motivations. Encouraging this type of thinking encourages them to become self-regulated learners!

The performance phase involves self-control of attention, learning strategies, and task strategies and self-observation by keeping track of their own behavior and altering it if something is not working or just to find a more effective strategy (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 283). These skills can also be taught through modeling and gradual release of control. Teachers must be mindful to give appropriate reminders to students to self-assess and adjust as the students are performing a task. This phase of self-regulated learning also offers a prime opportunity to get parents involved, especially at younger ages. Parents can help the most by observing and giving the same self-evaluation reminders to their children, rather than just stepping in and completing the project for their children.

The self-reflection phase involves evaluating the outcome of the task or behavior and reacting with self-reinforcing thoughts like satisfaction or drawing motivation to do better on the next task (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 283). Teachers can capitalize on opportunities to help students with this mindset, especially in middle school and high school, by having students fill out their own evaluations before seeing the teacher’s feedback. Students and teachers can then compare the two together so the students can assess the validity of their self-evaluating skills.

If you are anything like me, you struggle with surrendering control, especially to a student. However, by giving them a bit of control over their own learning, we can give them the gift of becoming self-regulated learners for their entire lives!

Reference:

Biehler, R., McCown, R., & Snowman, J. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Social Cognitive Theory

Research

There have been many theories of how the human mind learns new information through the ages, and even more variations on those theories. Operant conditioning theory only deals with scientifically observable factors in education, such as stimulus and response (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 274). Information-processing theory, on the other end of the spectrum, deals with internal factors in learning, storing, and recalling bits of information (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 274). Albert Bandura saw the weaknesses and incompletion in both of these theories and sought to reconcile the two and expand upon them with his social cognitive theory (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 275). In short, social cognitive theory states that learning happens when there is interaction among three factors: personal characteristics like internal thought processes and emotions, behavioral patterns, and the social environment like interacting with teachers and peers (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 275). This theory allows for a much more comprehensive exploration of the many issues in learning and education.

One of the greatest influences on Bandura’s social cognitive theory was the Bobo doll experiment. He used these experiments to test whether or not children could be taught a certain social behavior through modeling (McLeod, 2014). In the first experiment in 1961, young children were exposed to an adult model displaying either aggressive or non-aggressive behavior toward a Bobo doll, placed in a frustrating situation, and then left alone to play in a room containing a Bobo doll while being unknowingly observed (McLeod, 2014). The children who observed aggressive behavior statistically displayed more aggressive behavior, imitative and non-imitative, than those who observed non-aggressive behavior, supporting Bandura’s theory (McLeod, 2014). He used a similar strategy in a second experiment in 1965, but this time using vicarious reinforcement (McLeod, 2014). In this experiment, all the children observed aggressive behavior, but it was rewarded in front of some groups and punished in front of others (McLeod, 2014). This time, even though all the children were taught the aggressive behavior, those who saw it rewarded were far more likely to repeat it than those who saw it punished, once again supporting Bandura’s theory (McLeod, 2014). These findings have great implications for educators, as they support the theory that behaviors, including everything from respectful interactions to effective learning strategies, can be taught through modeling.

There are four levels of learning through modeling, but the very first is observation. Observation can teach a student the major components of a task, as well as getting a feel for the standard they will be held to, and even motivation and values if the model is talking through the task as they perform it (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 295).
The second level of observational learning is emulation. Emulation takes place when the learner not only learns about the task from the model, but actually repeats the task, usually with guidance, feedback, and reinforcement from the model (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 298). There are four variations in emulation. Inhibition occurs when the learner shows restraint from a typical behavior because a model is showing the same restraint (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 298). Disinhibition occurs when a learner does something they normally wouldn’t do because a model does the same thing without receiving negative reinforcement (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 298). Facilitation is similar but instead the learner does something they normally wouldn’t out of lack of motivation, but was encouraged to do so by the example of a model (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 299). A final type is true observational learning, in which the learner learns a new task or behavior with no prompting whatsoever except by observing and emulating a model (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 299).

The third level of observational learning, or learning from modeling, is simply called self-control. Self-control occurs when the learner can now perform the new task or behavior even when the model is no longer present (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 299). As this occurs without external motivation other than self-satisfaction (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 299), this is the true goal of all good teachers: that their students would be able to repeat what they learn even without the teacher present.

The fourth level, self-regulation, occurs when the learner can take the learned task or behavior and adapt it to changes in mindset or the environment (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 299). This shows that the task or behavior has not only been mastered, but that the learner has truly understood the purpose for it and what role it plays in relation to the rest of life.

Of course, several things make certain models more effective than others. First, learners are very attentive if a task is unfamiliar and the model seems to have mastery of it (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 298). Therefore, teachers should strive to know exactly what they are modeling and even have rehearsed it prior to modeling for their students, and have as detailed of a model as possible (Linsin, 2012). Learners are more likely to give attention to a model they admire or respect (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 298), so teachers can benefit from having other students model with them, especially if the student is well-liked (Linsin, 2012). Learners are also more likely to pay attention to a model whose behavior they deem acceptable (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 298). Teachers must also keep in mind that modeling is more effective than verbal instruction, so using a solid economy of words with meaningful vocabulary will be much more effective than a constant stream of repetition (Linsin, 2012). They are more likely to pay attention to and emulate a model who is rewarded for their behavior (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 274), so having a student or group of students model it for the rest and giving them feedback and praise is a very effective strategy (Linsin, 2012).

Personal Application

There are many ways I can use social cognitive theory and modeling with my students. Among the most commonly used would be modeling appropriate behavior, using students as models, and encouraging students to get past the emulation phase.

First, and most importantly for a Christian school teacher, is modeling appropriate behavior. This is especially important for me, as a Christian teacher who has a great many unbelieving students. I must model what a growing Christian should look like in front of my students, especially in the area of integrity, as many of them are unbelievers specifically because they have seen so-called believers behave with a lack of integrity. I stand, salute, and say the pledges during morning assembly. I refuse to check my phone during chapel, even though other teachers sometimes do so. I always speak respectfully of my authorities, colleagues, and students, and do my best not to lose my temper with the students. I must do these things, because if I do not model these behaviors, my students will not only not know what I mean when I ask them to behave respectfully, I will not have a leg to stand on when asking for their respect in my classroom.

Using students as a model is probably one of the most effective modeling strategies, even though it stretches the teacher to allow a student temporary control of their classroom. It can oftentimes be as simple as pausing an unruly class to highlight a student who is behaving extremely well. Many times, when I expect my students to complete an assignment a certain way, I find a student who already completed a similar assignment correctly, or have a student show how he did it in front of the class. Another important concept is that learners are more likely to emulate examples who are rewarded for their behavior, so I can take even more care in the future to give praise and even tangible rewards to students who are behaving correctly.
Lastly, I try to get students to get past the emulation phase of observational learning. Many of my students enjoy the security of watching me or another student doing a task, and then imitating it for themselves. However, I try to get them to move past this. For example, when writing a research report, I choose an example topic that is not on the approved topic list so they cannot imitate my thesis statement, sources, or outline. They can still see the task modeled, but they cannot imitate it directly.

Every teacher should strive to use social cognitive theory as an opportunity to view their classroom as a whole: teacher, curriculum, methods, environment, and students. When all of those things act in harmony under the guidance and example of the teacher, true learning can begin to take place for everyone who wants to participate in it.

References

Biehler, R., McCown, R., & Snowman, J. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Linsin, M. (2012, February 18). How to be a great teacher through modeling in the classroom. Smart Classroom Management. www.smartclassroommanagement.com/2012/02/18/how-to-be-a-great-teacher/

McLeod, S. A. (2014, February 05). Bobo doll experiment. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html

Simple Shifts for a Mindset of Mastery

In the modern classroom, much attention is given to the students’ self-esteem, or the way students feel about themselves, but very little attention is given to the students’ self-efficacy, which refers to how capable the students believe themselves to be in regards to a particular task (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 278). Both mindsets are important to be aware of, but to place too much emphasis on making a student feel good about themselves without giving them the skills to accurately evaluate their own abilities does them a huge disservice in the long run.

In order to understand the enormity of the harm done to a student who is not taught self-efficacy, let’s look at the opposite side of the equation: what do students with high self-efficacy look like? Students with high levels of self-efficacy will be self-confident (Frank, 2011), because they are able to accurately assess their own abilities (Frank, 2011). They develop a deep sense of interest and commitment to the activities they are presented with (Cherry, 2020). They are willing to take risks (Frank, 2011) because they view challenges as something to be mastered rather than something to be afraid of (Cherry, 2020). Also, due to their ability to accurately self-assess, they bounce back quickly when things go wrong (Cherry, 2020) and have a realistic sense of accomplishment when a task is achieved (Frank, 2011).

Imagine the opposite of the above student. A student with low self-efficacy would have no confidence, low awareness of their abilities, lack of interest and commitment, be unwilling to take risks, be frightened of any task they perceive as challenging, dwell on their failures, and feel like their accomplishments were due to luck rather than achievement. Any teachers who truly cared about their students would be horrified to have students going out into the world that way, and yet so many students are, and the teachers are blissfully unaware!

Although a small amount of self-efficacy will happen on its own, teachers can do several specific things to build their students’ self-efficacy. One of the most obvious factors in self-efficacy, which by definition it is awareness of one’s own abilities, is performance accomplishment (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 279), so teachers can boost their students’ self-efficacy through providing ample opportunities to succeed and accurate feedback on those performances. Additionally, studies have shown that the more specific the feedback is, the better (Frank, 2011). Vicarious experience, or watching other people perform the same task, is another way in which self-efficacy can be formed (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 280), so teachers should take care to model new activities instead of simply giving instructions. Mastery experiences are very strong in developing self-efficacy (Cherry, 2020), so teachers should give students the chance to truly succeed at every task, even if it takes more time or multiple attempts. Verbal persuasion cannot be discounted (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 280). Teachers should be careful to frame challenges in a way that doesn’t make them sound frightening. Psychological response also affects self-efficacy (Cherry, 2020), which means teachers can increase it in their students simply by creating a positive, motivational, goal-oriented environment in their classrooms! Verbal reinforcement will also build self-efficacy, as it provides the motivation to repeat successful completion of a task (Frank, 2011).

Teaching for self-efficacy sounds like a lot, but many teachers are already doing at least some of these things. Others are simple shifts in the way teachers say things or the environments they create in their classrooms. Other changes may seem radical to some, such as allowing more time or additional opportunities for students to succeed, but if it creates a brighter future for a more self-aware and self-regulated student, shouldn’t any change be worth it?

References:

Biehler, R., McCown, R., & Snowman, J. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Cherry, K. (2020) Self-efficacy and why believing in yourself matters. VeryWellMind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-self-efficacy-2795954

Frank, M. (2011) The pillars of the self-concept: Self-esteem and self-efficacy. Excel At Life. https://www.excelatlife.com/articles/selfesteem.htm

Transfer of Learning

Research

Although transfer of learning is the actual goal of all education, many teachers do not take the time to specifically plan for it. Many teachers even act as if it doesn’t exist, and simply teach the content to the point where students can pass the class and move on in life. Transfer of learning is the term used to describe the process by which information learned in the classroom is then used in other contexts (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 348), whether that be a different class, a job site, or life in general! Transfer of learning is indeed a broad subject, and experts have analyzed and defined several types of transfer and their variants.

One of the first distinctions in transfer of learning that is imperative for educators to understand is that of positive, negative, and zero transfer. The goal of education is positive transfer, in which information or a skill acquired in class is useful in a later situation (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 349). Positive transfer might be taking place when a guitar student uses his knowledge of how to play one scale to learn how to play a second scale. Negative transfer is much less desirable, but can sometimes occur. Negative transfer occurs when previous knowledge actually interferes with later learning (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 349). Negative transfer may happen when a guitar student is hindered in learning the technique of plucking the string toward the instrument because of his previous learning on the bass guitar, which requires the player to pluck the string away from the instrument. Zero transfer refers to a situation where one set of knowledge or skill has no bearing at all on later learning (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 350). Zero transfer occurs when a guitar player learns tae kwon do.

Another distinction that can be helpful to understand is that of specific and general transfer. Specific transfer refers to when previous learning helps with subsequent learning because the tasks themselves are similar (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 350). One example of specific transfer might happen when a guitar student learns to play the banjo, which is highly similar in many of its playing techniques. General transfer refers to when previous learning helps with later learning not because the tasks themselves are similar, but because the learning strategies used are similar (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 350). An example of general transfer could be seen when a guitar player learns how to play the piano. The techniques are completely different, but the music theory knowledge and practicing strategies are nearly identical.

One last important distinction in transfer is the distinction between low-road transfer and high-road transfer. Low-road transfer takes place when a previously mastered skill or information is automatically recalled and used to complete a new task or problem similar to the ones already mastered (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 351). One could see an example of low-road transfer in observing a guitar player effortlessly picking up and playing a ukulele, which has a tuning and techniques so similar to the guitar that only the finger spacing needs to be adjusted. High-road transfer refers to a conscious effort on the part of the learner to draw parallels and similarities between a previously mastered skill or learned information in order to aid in the completion of a new task (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 351). An example of high-road transfer can be seen in a guitar instructor having his pupil who is proficient at chess use the chess strategy of always thinking two moves ahead to master the skill of not only placing his fingers on the correct place for the current note, but also preparing the fingers to move to the next position as well.

Although some transfer of learning will take place on its own, teachers must make a conscious effort to teach for transfer if they want it to come naturally to their students. Because transfer of learning occurs due to the connections between bits of information in the student’s mind, teachers can use several different philosophies and strategies to create opportunities for students to use transfer of learning. One such strategy is to teach using different media (Stenger, 2017). Another is to change up the teaching techniques and types of learning exercises as often as possible (Stenger, 2017). These strategies allow the mental connections to be made in multiple ways so that the connections are stronger and an increased number of different stimuli will trigger the skill or knowledge to be recalled for use. Another useful strategy is to have the students practice generalizing (Stenger, 2017), which helps them see and understand the bigger picture. This can be further improved by having the students practice creating analogies (Stenger, 2017), which helps them draw connections between seemingly unrelated domains to strengthen current transfer and facilitate future transfer. Possibly the best strategy is to find ways to practice what is learned every day (Stenger, 2017), which aids in the rehearsal of skills and knowledge and can help it be applied in a variety of contexts, which is exactly the point!

Personal Application

As a high school English teacher, I feel that literally everything I do in my class is specifically meant for transfer! There are a variety of ways that I prepare my students for transfer and give them opportunities to specifically practice for it. As I give these students opportunities, I often receive (especially from freshmen) the dreaded question: “When are we ever going to use this in life?” I always have an answer ready for them, many of which are outlined in the following paragraphs.

One of the first ways that I teach for transfer is also the most obvious, at least to my students, because I do it every single day! I give the students a passage from Proverbs, and then have them write a paragraph based on a deep thought question related to that passage. This provides opportunities for transfer on a number of levels. In the first place, it gives them the opportunity to apply the knowledge they have learned from grammar and writing lessons earlier that year and in previous years. I even remind them of those previous lessons as they prepare to write: “Remember, every paragraph starts with a topic sentence,” and so forth. It also provides them the opportunity to practice the reading comprehension skills they learn in literature class, as understanding the Bible passage is key to writing the paragraph with the right mindset. It gives them a small-scale exercise in receiving a question and answering quickly in an organized way, as they have to in their occasional short persuasive essay assignments. Most importantly, it helps them think about the Bible in a personal and introspective way, a skill that they hopefully carry throughout their lives.

I very consciously help them prepare for the essay portion of the ACT by having them do a similar essay at least once per quarter. I have them practice writing daily, but I usually spend the day before the essay preparing them for the requirements of the short persuasive essay, such as using paragraphs, how to create a basic outline quickly, and how to avoid logical fallacies. During the essay, I help them practice time management by giving them a countdown every ten minutes or so. These short persuasive essays hopefully transfer not only into their ACT exam, but also into their critical thinking and communication skills in general.

Other various essay types not only provide them opportunities to apply language skills, but also give them specific directions to follow, which hopefully transfers into how to follow directions, templates, and examples in the future, even in domains that are not related to language arts, such as filling out a specific type of receipt or expense report for a future business.

I give them various speaking opportunities throughout the year. These public discourse opportunities will transfer into all of life, particularly in formal settings such as business management, practicing law, or sales. Giving oral presentations also helps them develop skills in diction, posture, pronunciation, and most importantly confidence in order to tackle similar tasks in the future, especially for those who may be interested in professions such as politics, a pastorate, or even education.

One very pointed assignment I give is a poster assignment. They must come up with a word that encapsulates a value they hold dear, such as integrity. Then, they must write one sentence explaining what that means, such as, “Do what is right, even if nobody else is.” Then, they must find or create a picture that illustrates that concept, such as a lone student working at his desk while his classmates play and throw things all around him. Then they put these three elements together on a poster in a way that is attractive. This assignment teaches for transfer to personal reflection, concise explanation, visual representation or analogy of an abstract concept, and even graphic design for those interested in that career path.

I am very conscious about making everything I do in my class have an eventual goal outside of my classroom. It may be as simple as knowing how to engage in a simple yet meaningful and grammatically correct conversation, or it may be as in depth as using research, reflection, organization, and writing skills to write their own theology books in the future! Only God knows where my students will end up; my job is simply to prepare them for anything and everything God may have for them, and that means teaching for transfer!

References

Biehler, R., McCown, R., & Snowman, J. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Stenger, M. (2017, May 11). 10 ways to improve transfer of learning. informED. https://www.opencolleges.edu.au/informed/features/10-ways-improve-transfer-learning/

Biblical Thinking is Critical Thinking

All teachers want students who can think critically. Yet many teachers find we lack the time to teach critical thinking skills when we also have to teach a rigorous curriculum. So we find ourselves quickly mentioning critical thinking concepts and hoping our students catch on. I would propose that intentionally teaching critical thinking not only saves time in the long run, but intentional use of the Bible to teach critical thinking will help form a much-needed biblical worldview.

Recognizing and understanding problems is the crucial first step of critical thinking (Ellerton, 2020). We all deal with problems of all kinds on a daily basis, but few possess the ability to frame the bigger problems correctly, which results in misunderstandings, confusion, and conflict. As Christians, we should frame our problems with a biblical mindset. The Bible tells us to recognize problems: “See then that ye walk circumspectly, not as fools, but as wise,” which means that we should be aware of the world around us and our own fleshly desires (Ephesians 5:15). This is the very heart of every problem from a biblical worldview! The Bible also repeatedly tells us to seek knowledge and understanding, another major tenet of critical thinking. Proverbs 15:14 states, “The heart of him that hath understanding seeketh knowledge: but the mouth of fools feedeth on foolishness.” One example of an exercise to help students understand and frame a complex problem asked them to evaluate which athlete was the greatest. They had to define terms, gather and evaluate information, and report and defend their claim (Ellerton, 2020).

Evaluating the quality of one’s own thinking and reasoning is another important part of critical thinking. This includes analyzing the structure of one’s arguments to see whether they are strong arguments (Ellerton, 2020). Christians should consider this, but we should also consider all of our thought processes in light of Scripture to make sure that our thinking is in line with God’s. Perhaps the best example of biblical thinking exemplifying the principle of gathering and evaluating information can be found in the Berean church in Acts 17:11: “These were more noble than those in Thessalonica, in that they received the word with all readiness of mind, and searched the scriptures daily, whether those things were so.” One method that teaches students to evaluate their own thinking is argument mapping, in which they visually trace the problem, relevant information, their own reasoning, and the conclusion (Ellerton, 2020).

I encourage biblical critical thinking every day in my classroom through an exercise I call a Proverbs Paragraph. I give a verse or two from Proverbs, give a writing prompt, and have the students write a reflective paragraph about that verse. Sometimes the question is simply meant to have students recognize a potential problem in their thinking. Other times the question forces them to make a value judgment, such as whether it’s better to have a good reputation or riches. Either way, they have to be able to think critically about the Bible and defend their position.

A final thought: the best way to encourage biblical critical thinking in our students is to model it ourselves. Answer every question using God’s Word. Reframe the question biblically if necessary. Challenge them to answer it biblically themselves, but also be ready to curate Scripture references for them to refer to. Most importantly: “...be ready always to give an answer to every man that asketh you a reason of the hope that is in you…” (I Peter 3:15b)

References:

Ellerton, P. (2020, January 27). Thinking about thinking helps kids learn. How can we teach critical thinking? The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/thinking-about-thinking-helps-kids-learn-how-can-we-teach-critical-thinking-129795

The Holy Bible, King James Version.

Learning Strategies

Research

All teachers want students who really get it. Nothing makes a teacher happier than hearing from former students that they are still using what they learned in class years, even decades, after the fact! However, these events are somewhat rare, which is not surprising considering that only a handful of students are truly learning the material to begin with. Even among a group of students who mostly received good grades on a test, few of them will be able to recall that information even a couple weeks later. Oftentimes, this is not a matter of student intelligence or even teacher methodology, but of a student’s metacognitive ability (Clarke & Protheroe, 2008, 34).

A student with good metacognitive skills is often referred to as a self-regulated learner (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 285). Although there are many skills involved in being a self-regulated learner, such as understanding a learning task, monitoring their own progress, and knowing when and where to seek assistance, one of the main factors is their ability to employ learning strategies (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 285). Although responsibility to use these strategies rests solely with the students, teachers would do well to teach these strategies to the students. How often do teachers instruct their students to organize their thoughts to write an essay or study for a test, but spend no time at all teaching their students how to organize their thoughts or study? Teachers who want their students to be self-regulated learners must take the time to teach their students how to use these learning strategies.

Teachers, especially middle and high school teachers, have little choice but to teach these learning strategies in the context of their content area, but they must keep several things in mind as they do so. First, they must not attempt to teach a learning strategy and a new content area concept at the same time (Clarke & Protheroe, 2008, 35). Doing this only creates cognitive overload, which leads to confusion and probable loss of all the information presented. Teachers should instead endeavor to teach a learning strategy using content the students are already somewhat familiar with. Second, teachers must be sure the strategies being taught are age-appropriate (Clarke & Protheroe, 2008, 35). It does very little good to teach a kindergartener how to take comprehensive notes, but they can learn to report a simple summary of a passage. On the other hand, a simple summary would not be appropriate for a high schooler, but giving an example of an abstract concept or drawing an analogy would. Thirdly, teachers must be intentional about teaching learning strategies (Clarke & Protheroe, 2008, 35). They should not be briefly mentioned or explained in an esoteric way. Vocabulary should be taught, concepts broken down, strategies modeled, practice monitored, and opportunities given. This gives students the germane cognitive experience needed to use these strategies on their own later on and throughout their lives.

The first type of learning strategy is based on memory, and can be broken into two categories: rehearsal and mnemonic devices. Rehearsal simply repeats information, although advanced rehearsal techniques group information into categories, which aids in the retrieval process (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 287). Spaced practice aids in rehearsal greatly. Instead of studying something for hours on end, students should be taught to study a small amount every night. This causes them to forget a little bit and have to relearn it, which strengthens the synapses (Gonzalez, 2016), much the same way that working out strengthens muscles. Students may also employ the strategy of interleaving, in which they intentionally shuffle the concepts they are working on in their study time rather than working on concepts in blocks. This forces the mind to work out each problem or recall each fact individually, rather than becoming temporarily efficient but forgetful in the long run (Gonzalez, 2016). Mnemonic devices such as acronyms are especially effective memory-based learning strategies because they add a layer to the way the information is stored, thereby making it even easier to retrieve (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 288). A last way to enhance memory-based learning strategies even further is retrieval practice, in which students force themselves to recall information without the use of notes or devices. This forces the mind to store that information where it can be retrieved more easily in the future, rather than allowing the mind to rely on external aid to find it (Gonzalez, 2016).

There are other learning strategies that help with broad concepts and ideas known as comprehension-directed tactics (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 287). One of the most basic is self-questioning or peer-questioning, which causes students to use what they know to create questions that challenge what they know and possibly discover what they do not know (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 290). An extension of self-questioning is elaboration, in which students spend time explaining what they know in as much detail as possible, which causes the mind to make connections between the new raw information learned and encode that information in a much more comprehensive way (Gonzalez, 2016). Note-taking may seem like an obvious strategy, but needs to be intentionally taught because very few students actually possess the ability to take notes properly. Done correctly, note-taking not only provides a tool to aid in later study sessions, but also causes the student to be an involved listener in class and discern between miscellany and important facts (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 291). Concept mapping, the creation of visual representations of the relationships between bits of information (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 292) utilizes dual coding, in which information is stored two different ways: verbally and visually (Gonzalez, 2016). This creates additional connections and aids in the retrieval process. Students should also be taught to make their own concrete examples of abstract ideas. Most teachers already do this as a part of the teaching process, but they rarely ask the students to come up with their own analogies (Gonzalez, 2016).

In conclusion, teachers who want their students to do well on the final exam as well as the weekly quiz should be teaching learning strategies as well as content area concepts. This will not only benefit the student’s GPA, but will also aid the student in becoming a life-long learner!

Personal Application

As I read through my sources for this week’s research, I was both encouraged and challenged. I am already employing many of these methods, but need to increase my intentionality of teaching these learning strategies to my students.

One example of how I already employ these strategies is in my quarterly short persuasive essay. I have students put their laptops away and use only pencil and paper for these assignments, so it makes use of the retrieval practice strategy. Students must recall not only the minutia of spelling, grammar, punctuation, and capitalization without the aid of a computerized word processor, but they must also recall how to form a thesis, structure a paragraph, and compose an essay. This also causes students to use the elaborative process. I ask for them to form a point of view about a controversial issue and defend it using logic. Whereas most students prefer to answer such questions with as few words as possible, this assignment forces them to write several paragraphs about the issue and think about it from multiple angles. It also provides the opportunity for them to practice forming concrete examples of abstract ideas. Many students have a hard time explaining their point of view using logic, but they excel at giving examples to defend their beliefs.

One area in which I could grow is the use of rehearsal and mnemonic devices. Due to gaps in previous instruction, many of my students struggle to even recall the parts of speech, much less a list of auxiliary verbs or prepositions. Although I teach them how to recognize and correct grammatical errors, it would help them greatly if I were to require them to master basic grammatical vocabulary and a few such lists so they can have that information to draw on both while they are under my instruction and throughout their futures.

I also need to be more intentional in the teaching of these strategies. Students may be mastering some learning strategies without knowing it, but unless I share with them which strategies they are using and how they can be used more effectively, they may not be able to recall and use them later on in life.

Every teacher is doing more right than they realize. We can be very hard on ourselves when an entire class does poorly on an assignment or test, so it is encouraging to read about certain tried and true strategies and recognize them as something we are already doing in our classrooms. However, lest we become complacent, let us also take note of the things we are not doing and work those into our teacher toolbox so we can always be improving upon the impact we make in our students’ lives!

References

Biehler, R., McCown, R., & Snowman, J. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Clarke, S., & Protheroe, N. (2008). Learning strategies as a key to student success. Principal, Nov/Dec 2008, 33-37.

Gonzalez, J. (2016, December 11). 6 powerful learning strategies you must share with students. Cult of Pedagogy. https://www.cultofpedagogy.com/learning-strategies/

What Seems to be the Problem?

Everyone deals with problems every day. Many problems are quite small, but some can seem to consume our lives, especially if we have not learned to apply proper problem-solving skills. While children learn a great deal from watching parents and other adults, educators can make a great difference in the future of their students by teaching them problem-solving skills. While this is typically prevalent in math classes, strategies to solve problems should be taught in every subject and grade level. Since I teach high school English, I will focus on mindsets and strategies that pertain especially to that grade level and content area.

Although there are many stages in problem solving, one of the biggest pitfalls in problem solving encountered by students is that of understanding the problem, a process called problem representation or problem framing (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 340). Whether the problem is a complicated math equation, a science experiment, or a persuasive speech, it cannot be solved properly if the problem itself isn’t understood. In his article “Over Fifty Problem-Solving Strategies Explained,” John Malouff compiles many strategies to help understand the nature of a problem. These include simply clarifying the problem, identifying key elements of the problem, creating a visual representation of the problem, considering specific examples (including extreme examples), and acquiring relevant knowledge (Malouff, 2018).

After the problem is understood, the next biggest challenge facing students is finding a solution. Many students tend to focus on the entire problem, but many strategies exist to help them find the right solution. Malouff again offers several mindsets to help overcome being overwhelmed with a big problem. Determining the cause of the problem can often lead to the solution, as can simplifying the task into smaller steps. Sometimes starting at a desired outcome and working backwards can reveal the solution. Using logic is a whole separate skill set that must be taught, but students must also be taught that seeking external aid is also a viable strategy for some problems. When several solutions appear to be viable, students can be taught to test various solutions to see which is best (Malouff, 2018). Other tested methods include working out a simpler version of the problem or reviewing similar problems that have already been solved (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 341-2).

Teaching these strategies as an English teacher primarily takes the form of persuasive writing assignments, which my students do several times a year. Teaching students to understand the parameters of the assignment, knowing what will be graded, and looking at examples are all parts of helping them understand the problem of how to write the paper. However, in dealing with the actual issue, acquiring and organizing relevant knowledge is an extremely important step, and one which frequently causes students to change their minds on some issues! As far as arriving at a conclusion, I encourage students to base their theses on logic backed with research, and I can teach them about logic (and how to avoid fallacies) in doing so. I frequently have students say they find that their solution is not working, or that they can’t find any evidence to support their thesis, and in those cases I advise them to look a little closer and consider whether they might be working the wrong angle, or even arguing for the wrong side. At any rate, even though most of my students believe writing the paper is the problem, I am secretly teaching them problem solving skills!

References:

Biehler, R., McCown, R., & Snowman, J. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Malouff, J. (2018, October 15). Over fifty problem-solving strategies explained. University of New England. https://blog.une.edu.au/usingpsychology/2018/10/15/over-fifty-problem-solving-strategies-explained/

Working Memory

Research

In order for education to take place, information must first be processed in the working memory. Many types of information enter the mind through the senses, but relatively little makes it all the way into long-term memory where it can be stored and retrieved for use throughout the lifetime of the student. The area in the human mind that processes sensory data and turns it into useful knowledge, the part where learning really takes place, is called working memory (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 250), and is comprised of four parts: the central executive, the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer (McLeod, 2012).

The central executive is the most important piece of working memory. It is in charge of managing our sensory perception through attention, manages the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, and makes the important connection between raw bits of information that enter our minds through the senses and turns it into knowledge (McLeod, 2012). The central executive is important to understand because the same part of the mind that manages our focus is also responsible for pulling information out of long-term memory. Previous learning impacts what the mind pays attention to, and what the mind pays attention to can be used to build on, change, or replace previous learning. This is what makes learning meaningful (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 252).

The phonological loop is the part of working memory that deals with language. It has two parts, the phonological store and the articulatory control process. The phonological store takes all language-based data and stores it for no more than a few seconds. The articulatory control process acts like a loop that takes that data from the phonological store and rehearses it for as long as desired so it can remain in the working memory (McLeod, 2012). This is important to understand because it clarifies that something can be “memorized” for a short amount of time in a process called maintenance rehearsal, like a phone number someone must call back, but not remembered in the long run (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 250).

The visuospatial sketchpad is responsible for processing visual information, such as the surroundings of an individual, and using information retrieved from long-term memory to create an image for use in working memory, such as remembering how to drive to a familiar location or the layout of a familiar building (McLeod, 2012). Understanding the visuospatial sketchpad shows that visual information is an extremely effective way for the mind to process new information.

The episodic buffer is the part of working memory that interfaces between the central executive and long-term memory (McLeod, 2012). This is important to education because it shows that new data does not have to enter the mind in its own little “box,” but rather can interact with previous knowledge and aid in the processing of new information or use the new information to modify previous knowledge. This process is called elaborative rehearsal or elaborative encoding (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 250).

Another area of working memory that is supremely important for educators to understand is that of cognitive load, or the amount of information being used to perform a task or process information. There are three areas of cognitive load to be aware of: intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load, and germane cognitive load (Psychologist World).

The intrinsic cognitive load is the amount of mental energy it takes to process new information based on the intrinsic quality or complexity of that information. This cognitive load cannot be altered because the task is already defined. However, the task can be broken up into smaller chunks to allow for easier processing (Psychologist World). Research has shown that organizing information into chunks aids in long-term memory of that information (Biehler, McCown, & Snowman, 2009, 251).

The extraneous cognitive load is mental energy required to process information that does not actually relate to the learning task, but rather surrounds the learning task. The extraneous cognitive load is increased by poor instruction, which increases the complexity of the learning task. This cognitive load can be altered because it is dependent on the teacher (Psychologist World).

A germane cognitive load is the mental energy required for the process of creating a schema, a sort of profile or script the mind can use to anticipate what will happen surrounding a certain object, idea, person, or event the next time it is encountered. A germane cognitive load may be considerable the first time something is encountered because a schema does not yet exist, but will be considerably less when subsequent times of the same or similar events occur (Psychologist World).

Cognitive load theory is so important for educators to understand because it allows educators to minimize extraneous cognitive load and utilize the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad at the same time. Research has shown that while two competing sources of information of the same type (for example, both auditory) will increase the extraneous cognitive load beyond what the student can handle, the mind can definitely handle two sources of information if one is visual and one is verbal (Psychologist World). This means the teacher can confidently model a task while simultaneously explaining it, but must be careful to not create competition by having the student read about a task while simultaneously explaining it.

Personal Application

There are several areas of immediate application of this research that I can use in my high school English classroom, either as a new strategy or increasing my awareness of something I am already doing. The most prevalent areas would be that of simultaneous stimulation of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, easing the intrinsic cognitive load by breaking learning tasks into chunks, and increasing opportunities for students to exercise their germane cognitive loads.

I can increase my student’s opportunities to learn new information by carefully integrating visual stimuli into my lessons. I do need to be careful that I do not present images that conflict with the concepts being taught, because that will only create confusion. However, presenting them with a strategically selected image to describe while teaching them about sentence structure could help them grasp the difference between a subject, direct object, and indirect object. Students would then latch onto those ideas far better than just listening to me explain those concepts. I could also use different styles of diagrams to illustrate different styles of essay and how to create an effective outline.

I already break learning tasks into chunks. Being fully aware that my students do not yet have high school diplomas, I break down the process of writing an essay into the smallest chunks I can manage. It is much easier to write a research report about an animal if the teacher breaks it into selecting an animal, finding credible sources, compiling information, organizing information, drafting, revising, and publishing. I break each of those steps into even smaller steps. Aside from willful inattention, my students should have no excuses to not know how to complete the report! I could probably use the “chunking” strategy more in my grammar lessons as well, although the curriculum already does a fairly decent job of breaking that information into manageable pieces.

Lastly, I could definitely work on creating more opportunities for germane cognitive experiences in my classroom. This could take the form of simply taking a class period to model how to format a paper correctly, and then guide them through formatting their own papers before handing them in. Many of my freshman students have not yet had the experience of writing a thesis statement and then expanding that statement into a full essay, so perhaps I could show them the strategies I use for writing thesis statements and then give them example topics to try in small groups.

This research has been quite illuminating! It is extremely satisfying to learn new terms and concepts, especially in one’s own vocational field. How much more satisfying it is to do research that can have an immediate impact on your work and create increased opportunities to become better at the task God picked for you!

References

Biehler, R., McCown, R., & Snowman, J. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.

McLeod, S.A. (2012). Working memory model. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/working%20memory.html

Psychologist World. (n.d.). Cognitive load theory. Psychologist World. https://www.psychologistworld.com/memory/cognitive-load-theory